We wear the mask that grins
and lies,
It hides our cheeks and shades our eyes,
This debt we pay to human guile;
With torn and bleeding hearts we smile,
And mouth with myriad subtleties.
--Dunbar
When not trapped in the stereotypes of being "hypocritical
guises" or "camouflaged farces", masks reflect
the innocence of the primitive people of the world who were the
real creators of these aesthetically sublime and culturally functional
symbols. The mask is a heritage of this planet and works beyond
all stipulated geo-political boundaries of the world.
Masks portray the various moods that get embossed
on our faces as reflections of the various emotions and states
of mind that an individual goes through. Experiences of emotions
- love, anger, hate, fury, joy, fear, disgust, sorrow - transcend
castes, creed and nationality and the universal body language
depicting these emotions has been sought by man to be given form
through masks.
Masks can be thought of as having been created
by our ancestors to form a bridge between the outer phenomenal
world and the inner person. Though the modern world belittles
masks as being tools for cosmetic disguise and are often attached
with a negative connotation, the ancient world treated masks
as instruments of revelations - a pathway to the world of gods
and other invisible powers - by giving form to the formless.
This endeavor of our ancestors to know the unknown is given shape
by the mask - be it of deities or cult icons or even exorcism
and ritual healing. Masks thus became an object of reverence
in all ancient cultures and are considered so, even now by aboriginal
people around the world.
The ancient Latin word for mask is "persona" which
literally indicates "false face", an aspect of the
personality shown to or perceived by others. Every person is
said to have at least two selves - one without any guise and
the other, an 'alternate self' - one which may or may not be
a pretension. While it is the field of behavioral psychology
that delves into the nuances of multiple selves of a person,
for the common man, the search for the 'self' as well as its
reflective imaginations has led to the discovery of the Mask
- something that could give form to various guises which were
far from the conscious self but close to the mind.
While the primitive man, out of fear of the
natural power around them, copied the world of animals and birds
through symbols, paintings and sketches around him, the fear
of the dynamism of nature within and outside, propelled him to
create masks as a linkage between his world and the one unknown
to him. Rituals built around these masks combined with costumes
and music of the people of those times depict the psyche of man
during those times, reflecting the natural world through actual
imitation or through other representational forms. It was believed
that masks linked to natural powers served the community by striking
a harmonious balance with the forces of nature and the spirit
world.
Masks cannot be thought of as works of art
alone - they serve multiple functions, all of which contribute
in expressing the human elements and messages, which they personify.
These functions, briefly can be indicated as:
- to evoke certain reactions in the
beholder, for instance, awe of the god represented, fear
in an enemy, or ecstasy in possession or trance
- to cure disease in men, cattle,
and crops by impersonating the supernatural power
- to represent religious totems
- to emphasize social wrongs by enacting
the role of wrongdoer or by satire
As a tool in both popular and sophisticated
theatrical forms, the mask helps in portraying various socio-cultural
themes through direct or indirect or even satiric depiction of
people or various social concepts. Religious rituals of various
forms in various cultures also have wide use of masks in initiation
rites, life-cycle ceremonies, rites of exorcism and ritual healing,
and also in celebration ceremonies like those after crop harvests.
All three possible types of masks - ritual masks, war and monstrous
masks, and masks for tribal and folk performances at the time
of festivals - are ritual in origin.
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COMPARISON
OF THE MOHENJOADARO
PASUPATI MASK WITH THE
MASK OF THE CELTIC GOD CERNUNNOS
Courtesy Indian
Paganism |
The origin of the mask has been traced to
pre-historic man. Depictions of masks have been found in various
rock paintings and cave paintings. Masks were probably used for
hunting and taming animals and for their primeval dances. The
Mohenjodaro excavations, which brought to light the ancient Indus
valley civilization (2500 B.C.), have revealed a Terracotta mask,
which is called the Pashupati mask. Interestingly, a similar
looking mask, which is said to depict the God Cernunnos, has
been found in European excavations of Celtic age artifacts.
MASKS IN INDIA
The traditions of Indian dance and dance dramas
are among the most perplexingly complex and varied theatrical
cultures of the world. The geographical vastness, different ecological
conditions, multiplicity of races and their languages, the complex
religious beliefs and ritual practices and equally intricate
social structure have all contributed in creating the most colorful
panorama of dance and dance drama traditions. India has a huge
range of decorative, festive and ceremonial masks related to
the vast repertoire of myths, legends and folkore, which revolve
around idolized deities, valiant heroes, and fierce demons.
In olden days, masks of Siva and and Shakti
were considered extremely powerful iconic masks in India.
The three-eyed 'shakti', in the form of Durga and Kali, are very
common in the eastern belt of India. A very common use of
these
masks is found in the mask dances in which narrative plays
are staged in which Goddess Durga (or any of her forms of Shakti)
kills the evil demon. Along with the power of the deity,
masks also depict the pet or "vahana" (vehicle) of
the deity. For example, the lion (Goddess Durga's vahana) is
shown
along
with her while the goddess kills the asura (demon). This
implies the linkage sought between natural power and ritualistic
connotations.
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USE
OF MASKS IN THE
STAGING OF RAMLILA
Courtesy Puppet
India |
Another extremely popular theme in India is
the Hindu epic, Ramayana. Staging of this epic as Ramlila always
captures the psyche of people through masked depictions of its
characters. Even though now it is non-ritualistic in nature,
the enactment of this epic through the Ramlila processions (procession
which eulogizes the tale of Lord Rama) or through various theatrical
forms. Ramlila masks often see the use of zari (golden glittery
thread) and brass. Another very popular figure is that of the
Narasimha (one of the incarnations of Lord Vishnu) icon from
the Bhagavata-mala, in Andhra Pradesh in south India. The Bhagavat
Mela Natakam of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, Prahlada Natakam
of Orissa and Bayalatta theatre of Karnataka also use Narasimha
masks.
MASK DANCES DEPICTING ANIMALS
Depiction of animals through masks has been
a practice that has survived from prehistoric times. The power
and fury of the faces of animals have always enchanted man. Mythological
and real animals remain a powerful component of folk-religion
and occupy a sacred space in the minds of the natives of any
nation. The lion mask of Purulia and the Jackal mask from Gambhira
(both in West Bengal in eastern India) with their dull color
temperatures, the animal masks of northeastern India and those
of Madhya Pradesh in central India are prominent examples of
mask depictions of animals. The wooden masks from tribal Madhya
Pradesh have carvings of images from the animal world, of snakes,
insects and even the cosmos.
The tribal people of Madhya Pradesh wear masks,
which they call Mukhada, during festivals and ritual dances.
Mukhadas are made using the most inexpensive and readily available
material. Pumpkin hollows, waste paper, cardboard and wood is
used for these masks. Sometimes, a gourd hollow is also used
for masks - in such a case, the mask is elongated in shape as
compared to the round shape possible from a pumpkin hollow. A
pair of holes is provided in the masks to peep through. However,
similar holes are not provided for the nose, mouth and ears.
Instead, honey-bee wax is used for the nose, pumpkin seeds or
rice seeds are used to depict the teeth, and bangles form the
eyes. Hair from goats or bears is used to depict beards, moustaches
and hair. Though generally no coloring is externally applied
to these masks, some of them do bear a blood-red color. Some
tribes decorate their masks with colorful designs and add peacock
plumes for added beauty. These people use gloss paper or aluminum
foil to add glitter to their masks. However, masks made with
perishable items are not long lasting and get destroyed by pests
and moisture within a year or two. Since masks are made from
readily available material and are unrefined in form, two masks
can never be replicas.
The tribal communities of Gonda and Raj-gonds
follow several Hindu customs and are great admirers of Lord Krishna.
Therefore, their boys and girls wear masks of the Lord and Gopis
(Lord Krishna's female companions) while performing group dances.
They have the greatest variety of masks amongst the tribal people
of Madhya Pradesh.
The Baiga tribe uses wood for their masks
and hence they are very heavy. Their youngsters celebrate the "Charata" festival
in a big way. Quite ahead of the festival day they commence making
their facial masks. On the day of the festival, they dance in
groups wearing these masks. The villagers honor them with food
and wine. They move from village to village and repeat their
performances. The tribals of Bastar District also perform this
festival with all pomp and show. Maria tribal youths also wear
similar masks while dancing. Their masks have bison horns on
them and are smeared with red dye.
On an auspicious day, the Buyya tribals invoke
god "Kalyadev." Two unmarried youths sport facial masks
and numerous ornaments in order to commence their ritual dance.
The audience makes queries about rain fall, prospects of a good
harvest, probable date for the commencement of hunting expeditions
and who should be its leader. The dancers sway and reach a state
of frenzy. The "possessed" persons then suggest remedies
to the problems and questions posed by the people. The villagers
consider that these are the dictates of their deity and act accordingly.
Animal Mask Dances are prevalent in villages
of south Orissa, especially in the district of Ganjam. During
the Thankurani Yatra (a religious festival marked by a huge procession),
when the idols are taken out on the streets, the animal mask
dancers dance in front of the procession. During wedding ceremonies
too, they lead the bridegroom's procession all the way to the
bride's house. The three animal mask dances typical of the area
are the tiger, bull and horse dances. Two persons get into a
cane frame and conceal themselves within it. Their legs become
the legs of the animals they are representing.
Another such animal dance is the Chaiti Ghoda
Dance, which is performed by the people of the Kaibarta caste
of Orissa during the month of Chaitra (springtime in India),
to honor their deity, Vasuli Devi. A man, riding on a bamboo-horse,
dances with a couple (Rauta and Rautani) and is accompanied by
a drummer and a piper. The tiger dance called the Bagh Nritya
is also popular in Orissa.
Kucchhi Ghodi is a mask dance performed during
Holi - the festival of colors - in Braj, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan.
Men in elaborate costumes ride well-decorated dummy horses, holding
naked swords and dance to the rhythm of drumbeats.
The Bhand Pather form of theatre in Shikargah,
Kashmir, uses masks for deer, gods and tigers, with a costume
incorporating the mask. These deer masks have movable jaws. The
Chittoor, Nellore, Prakasam and Guntur districts of Andhra Pradesh
boast of the Keelugurram, which is the imitation of the dance
movements of a horse by men and women. This entertaining horse
is made of thin bamboo-pieces and is covered with paper-paste.
Dancers hold the horse with attached sticks and perform to the
tunes of musical instruments. The horsemen wear wooden legs and
ankle-bells. The horse is also decorated with bells around its
neck. Puravai Attam, also known as Poikkal Kuthirai, is a dummy
horse show in Tamil Nadu. The horse is made of jute, cardboard,
paper and glass. Men as well as women perform the show. Wooden
stilts are tied to the dancers' feet. A pair of dancers, impersonating
as king and queen, performs this dance. Puli Vesham, or tiger
play, is a popular dance form all over Andhra Pradesh and is
practised by both Hindus and Muslims. It is performed in open
air during the festivals of Dushehra and Muharram. Experts perform
the tiger-play with musical instruments, while smearing their
whole body with yellow varnish, black spots and stripes, with
a snake painted on the stomach. The costume contains a tiger's
mask and a tail made of cloth. The performer wears bells on one
ankle.
DIVERSE MASKS FROM DIVERSE PARTS OF INDIA
Eastern India boasts of the famous Chhau mask
dances. The tribal belt where the tribals and other common people
perform Chhau dances is distributed into three adjoining states,
West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Etymologically, Chhau is derived
from the Sanskrit word 'chhaya', which connotes a mask but some
scholars are of opinion that Chhau is an independent colloquial
Odissi word, meaning, to attack or hunt stealthily. Chhau is
evidently a war dance and has three schools as such, coming from
Seraikella in Bihar, Purulia in West Bengal and Mayurbhanj in
Orissa. The Mayurbhanj form of Chhau uses no masks while the
others do. All the three Chhau dance forms are practised by males.
Purulia Chhau of West Bengal involves the
propitiation of the Sun God through masks. It is a vibrant, powerful
and ritualistic folk dance form with an inclination towards theatre
and is performed during the Chaitra Parva festival or the Gajan
festival in mid-April. The themes of this dance are always meant
to depict how evil is punished based on mythological stories.
Themes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas are performed
through this dance.
The distinguishing feature of this dance drama
is the skillful use of masks and costumes, supplemented by the
right tempo of music. The actors are poor and illiterate peasants.
The performances are held annually at a festival of the Sun God.
It is a heroic dance performance of the males, the females having
an insignificant role in it. Moreover, women's roles in the drama
are always played by men wearing women's masks.
In the past, the devotees painted their face
and body with colors. However, during the Vaishanava period (a
period in Indian religious history during the 15th to 17th century
A.D., marked by a resurgence of believers in Krishna and Vishnu)
, the dance soon evolved to use wooden masks, which are considered
sacred in ritualistic performances. Later on, the masks began
to be prepared with a mixture of paper, pulp, mud and cloth,
which made them lighter than the wooden versions. Nowadays, these
facial masks are manufactured mostly in the Purulia district
of West Bengal. The making of these masks is an independent art
altogether. It needs a gifted artist to visualize the mask and
then give shape to it. They are manufactured by artisans, well-versed
in Puranas, using simple tools and inexpensive ingredients. A
clay model is designed on which paper pieces are pasted and on
this layer rag is attached with riverbed clay. Then it is polished
with a delicate wooden chisel, followed by removing from the
mould and drying in the sun. The actors depicting gods and goddesses
wear star-spangled facial masks seated with feathers and jewels
while those depicting the demon-king Ravana, Mahishasura (the
buffalo headed demon) and other demons and evil spirits wear
grotesque masks. The use of masks in Purulia Chhau not only determined
the line of its growth, but also remained its focal point even
after the form fully crystallized.
The costumes used are made out of locally
available inexpensive materials. The actors representing gods
wear light colored trousers, whereas deep colored and striped
ones are reserved for the demons. The actors who depict Lord
Shiva put on a loincloth of a tiger's skin while those depicting
his son Ganesh wear a dhoti. Those depicting Goddess Kali have
to wear a tight pair of trousers of black cloth. Saffron colored
dhotis are meant for those depicting ascetics, sages and brahmins.
The main characters wear embroidered jackets manufactured by
the local women. They are beautifully designed by using silk
thread, tinsels and artificial pearls.
The principle occasion for the performance
of Chhau in Seraikella is the Chaitra Parva, which comes about
the middle of April every year. The Sareikela style of Chhau
was helped in its development by royal patronage in the erstwhile
princely states comprising the state of Bihar. The kings of these
states with artistic leanings actively participated in dance
performances of Chhau. This mask dance form originated in medieval
India in Saraikela in southern Bihar. Masks are an essential
part of a Chhau performance and mask making has been a hereditary
trade. Over the generations the masks have become more stylized.
Originally made of wood, then bamboo and pumpkin-shells, at present
they are made of papier mache. Sophisticated masks, made of paper-mache
with awe-inspiring headgear, add to the folk tune and steps of
the dancers. The dance motifs and themes are interrelated with
myths and history covering animates and inanimates as well as
sentiments. The Seraikella Chau has extended its thematic content
by introducing very suggestive and poetic subjects into its repertoire.
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