In our previous
article on the same topic, we explored some of the common
professions that people in rural India take up. These include
professions of the cobbler, carpenter, potter, basket weaver, charkha
weaver, blacksmith, priest and the roadside animal entertainer. A large
population of India is engaged in these professions. In this ending
part of the article, we will explore a few more such traditional
professions of the rural Indian people. To read the first part of this
article, please click here.
India is primarily an agricultural state. Almost 70 percent of the
entire population of India lives in the rural sector. Hence, farming is
not only an important profession in this country, but it is also a way
of life.
The Indian farmers or the Kisans, as they were called, underwent a huge
struggle during the rule of the Zamindars and Jagirdars. They were
forced to give away all their crop to them and often lived below the
poverty line. While the rich Zamindars kept getting richer, the farmers
would find it difficult to afford even one square meal a day.
Additionally, the
moneylenders would phenomenally raise the levels of interest on loans
taken, which made it veritably impossible for them to repay it back.
This would force them to go into bonded labour.
Then, the All India
Kisan Sabha (AIKS) at the Lucknow session of the Indian National
Congress in April 1936 with Swami Sahajanand Saraswati elected as its
first President. Other successful Kisan movement took place under the
able leadership of Sardar Ajit Singh and in 1921 under Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel. Interestingly, it was Mao's peasant revolution in
China which became a catalyst for national liberation movements in many
colonies, including India.
India's prime
farmers' movement emerged in Punjab. The Ghadar party, led by Raja
Mahendra Pratap, led to the actual political awakening of India. The
Sikhs of Punjab, who migrated to the United States and Canada in the
19th century, helped finance the formation of this party. They then
asked Indians abroad to return home and fight British imperialism. Over
8000 of these people comprised Punjab's Sikhs. The Ghadar Movement was
to have a powerful impact on Punjab politics and especially on the
peasants in the near future.
Similar conferences
were also held in Lahore, Faislabad, Lyallpur and other places. The
most famous was the 1938-39 Long Morcha in Lahore, when farmers from
all over Punjab courted arrests for nine months in front of the
assembly building. The slogan of Pagri Sambhal O jatta (Hold your head
high, O peasant) was first raised at a mass gathering in Lyallpur in
1907. Ten thousand people are said to have attended this meet.
Mahatma Gandhi had
led two revolts of poor Indian farmers against the harassment of the
British government and allied landlords in the Champaran district,
Bihar, and Kheda. These movements were a huge success and fired the
imagination of the Indian people. The Indian National Congress set up
in 1920 under Gandhiji's leadership launched the Non-Cooperation
Movement. Millions of Indians undertook Satyagraha and thus peacefully
and non-violently revolted against the British, boycotting courts,
government services, schools, disavowing titles, pensions and rejecting
British clothes and goods. Many people got severely tortured, beaten
and arrested during this movement.
The Bardoli
Satyagraha of 1925 in the state of Gujarat, deserves special mention as
a major episode in the Indian Independence Movement. The farmers were
already suffering after a famine and finding it difficult to get by.
Gujarati activists Narhari Parikh, Ravi Shankar Vyas and Mohanlal
Pandya solicited the help of Gujarat's most prominent freedom fighter,
Vallabhbhai Patel, who was already widely respected by common Gujaratis
across the state.
Together, they
decided not to pay the high taxes to the government. The government
began to auction the houses and the lands in Gujarat, but not a single
man from Gujarat or anywhere else in India came forward to buy them.
Patel had appointed volunteers in every village to keep watch. When the
officials would go in search of residents, they would hide in the
jungle and the officers would find the entire village empty.
People across the
nation recognized Patel's strong leadership and he was known as Sardar
for the first time, which in Gujarati means Chief or Leader.
Rajasthan, known for
its vast tracts of deserts, was witness to a history in the making.
Here, there was yet another successful agitation of farmers and
peasants for their right to livelihood. In the twenty-two princely
states of the then Rajputana state, there was no unified political
milieu and each state had its own territorial area, which was exclusive
politically in that it had its separate administration nag and army.
Hence, the freedom movement was segmented, depending upon the degree of
unity and cohesiveness among political players in each state.
In most of the
Jagirs a Jagirdar would take fifty percent of the produce. Then over
and above the share of the produce the Kisan had to pay numerous "lags"
or cesses. This meant that the Kisans had to part with more than eighty
percent of their produce.
Shri Kan Singh Parihar played a great role in drafting and enactment of
Marwar Tenancy Act of 1949 and Marwar Land Revenue Act of 1949. Shri
Parihar intended to make all the farmers almost the proprietors of all
their fields, wells and so on, without paying any premium and also
being relieved from paying any cess. This Act became yet another great
success.
These and other
successful farmers' movements ensured that the rights of the peasants
were maintained and they were allowed to carry on with everyday life.
Farmers in India, though, still continue to struggle to meet both ends.
Social activists are still trying their level best to get them their
rightful due.
A fisherman or
fisher captures fish and other marine animals from a body of water, in
order to make a living. Worldwide, there are about 38 million
commercial and subsistence fishermen and fish farmers, as they are also
referred to. This profession, which includes both men and women, is
very ancient and is said to be a means of obtaining food since the
Mesolithic period.
The profession of
fishing mostly grew and flourished in Asian countries, where
four-fifths of world fishers and fish farmers reside. Most of these
fishermen were into offshore and deep-sea fisheries. Women fish in some
regions inshore from small boats or collect shellfish and seaweed. In
many fishing communities, women are also responsible for making and
repairing fish nets, post-harvest processing and also sales and
marketing.
Recreational
fishing, as the name suggests, is just for pleasure or competition. The
commonest materials used here a rod, reel, line, hooks and baits or
lures. Big-game fishing is fishing from boats to catch large species
such as tuna, sharks and marlin.
India, being a
peninsula, is filled with coasts and extensive freshwater resources.
Naturally, fishing is a major occupation here. Each state has its own
fishing community, with colorfully diverse cultures, customs and
habits. In such states, fishing actually becomes part of its cultural
identity. Fisheries provide employment opportunities to millions
of Indians and also contribute to food security of the country.
According to a
national survey, the total marine fisherfolk population of 3.57 million
is in 3,305 marine fishing villages spread across the coastal States
and Union Territories (including islands). Of these, 0.90 million are
active fisher people, and another 0.76 million fisher people are
involved in other fisheries-related activities.
The Indian coastline
can be delineated into 22 zones, based on the ecosystem structure and
functions. Indian boat types include catamarans, masula boats,
plank-built boats, dug-out canoes, machwas, dhowis and the latest
motorized fibre-glass boats, mechanized trawlers and gillnetters as
well.
According to the
CMFRI 2008, India's marine capture fish production increased from
520,000 tonnes in 1950 to 3.15 million tonnes in 2007. The majority of
this comprises oil sardines, penaeid and non-penaeid shrimp, Indian
mackerel, Bombay duck, croakers, cephalopods, sardines and threadfin
breams.
Fisheries in major
towns and cities in India have been impacted today due to natural
disasters and also pollution and global warming. Some Indian fishermen
today are finding it difficult to subsist on their present income.
Additionally, there is also the safety issue for the fisherman, while
at sea.
The government is
trying its best to help out these fisherfolk. There have been important
cabinet decisions and recommendations being taken in favour of the
fisheries. The National Fish-workers' Forum deals with the day-to-day
problems faced by fishers. The Murari Commission seeks to wipe out most
of these issues within the next few years.
A shepherd is one
who cares for, feeds and guards sheep, especially in big flocks. The
profession of a shepherd, that is, shepherding is again very ancient,
dating back about 6,000 years, in Asia Minor. Sheep were maintained for
their milk, meat and most importantly, their wool.
In India, sheep were
mostly part and parcel of the family farm along with other animals such
as chicken and pigs. The shepherd had to travel from pasture to pasture
to find food for his sheep and also protect the flock from wolves and
other predators. The shepherd was also to supervise the migration of
the flock and ensured they made it to market areas in time for
shearing. In ancient times shepherds also commonly milked their sheep -
only some shepherds still do this today.
Shepherds are often
wage earners – they are generally paid to watch over others' sheep.
They are largely nomadic. Shepherds were mostly the younger sons of
farming peasants, who did not inherit any land. Some families, though,
would have a family member to shepherd its flock – such shepherds were
fully integrated in the society.
Shepherds would
normally work in groups either looking after one large flock and live
in small cabins. Shepherding developed only in rugged and mountainous
areas, where it was easy to find food for the sheep. Hence, during the
pre-modern era, shepherding was mainly concentrated in regions such as
the Israel, Greece, the Pyrenees, the Carpathian Mountains and Scotland.
Shepherding has
changed dramatically at this point of time. Some families in Asia have
their entire wealth in sheep, so a young son is sent out to guard them
while the rest of the family tend to other chores.
Now, the shepherd's
wages are much higher. The eradication of sheep predators in parts of
the world have lessened the need for shepherds and more productive
breeds of sheep can be left in fields and moved periodically to fresh
pasture when necessary. Hardier breeds of sheep can be left on
hillsides. The sheep farmer has to attend to the sheep only at times
like lambing or shearing.
In Christianity, Jesus called himself "The Good Shepherd". The Ancient Israelis were mostly a pastoral people and there were many shepherds among them. Interestingly, many Biblical heroes were shepherds – the most prominent among them were Abraham and Jacob, the twelve tribes, Moses, and King David.
The Roman Catholic
and Anglican bishops have the shepherd's crook among their insignia. In
both these cases, the implication is that the faithful are the "flock"
who have to be tended.
The tendency of
humans to put themselves in danger and their vulnerability and
inability to take care of themselves, their needing the power of the
leading of God is also reinforced with the metaphor of sheep in need of
a shepherd.
Mohammed, the
Prophet of Islam, prided himself in being part of a rich tradition of
prophets who found their means of livelihood as shepherds.
Sikhism also has
many mentions of shepherd tales. There are many relevant quotations,
such as "We are the cattle, God almighty is our shepherd."
The Tirthap
community of shepherds is found in north Maharashtra, in the provinces
of Dhule and Jalgaon. The Dhangars are said to have originated from the
Ahirs of Northern India. The shepherd community of Kurubas can be found
in South India, mainly in the state of Karnataka.
Hunting is the
practice of pursuing living animals for food, leisure, or trade. The
species which are hunted are referred to as game and are usually
mammals and gamebirds. Hunting may also mean the elimination of vermin
to prevent diseases caused by overpopulation. This, for example, can be
done to help maintain a population of healthy animals within an
environment's ecological system, in the absence of natural
predators.
The history of
hunting is as ancient as the Homo sapiens. It is an undisputed
fact that early humans were hunters. With the establishment of
language, culture and civilization, hunting became a theme of
stories and myths, even rituals such as animal sacrifice.
There is fossil
evidence for spear use in Asian hunting dating from approximately
16,200 years back. Many species of animals have been hunted and
caribou/wild reindeer had probably been the most popular game animals.
Animal domestication
became relatively common at one time, but yet, hunting was a
significant contributor to food supply, even after the development of
agriculture. The supplementary materials from hunting included protein,
bone for implements, sinew for cordage, fur, feathers, hide and
leather. The earliest hunting tools had been rocks, spears, bow and
arrows.
With domestication
of dogs, birds of prey and the ferret, several types of animal-aided
hunting developed including venery, coursing, falconry and ferreting.
Many dog breeds are selected for very precise tasks during the hunt,
reflected in such names as pointer and setter.
Even though
agriculture and animal husbandry came into the fore, hunting remained a
part of human culture. As hunting moved on to become more of a social
activity, hunting became a sport for those of an upper social class –
this activity became a luxury. Hunting was considered to be an
honourable, if somewhat competitive pastime to help the royalty
practice skills of war even during times of peace.
The ancient Hindu scriptures describe hunting as an acceptable sport of the royalty. Even the godly entities are described to have engaged in hunting. In fact, one of the names of Lord Shiva is "Mrigavyadha", the deer hunter. The great epic Ramayana talks extensively about hunting. Dasharatha, the father of Lord Rama, is said to have the ability to hunt in the dark. During one such expedition he accidentally killed Shravana, mistaking him for game. When Rama was exiled to the forest, the hunter (or Nishad) king, Guha, helped Rama, Sita and Lakshmana cross the river Ganga. Also, during Rama's exile, Ravana kidnapped his wife Sita from their hut while Rama was hunting a golden deer, and his brother Lakshmana went after him. According to the Mahabharat, Pandu, the father of the Pandavas, accidentally kills the sage Kindama and his wife with an arrow mistaking them for a deer. Why, even Lord Krishna is said to have died after being accidentally wounded by an arrow of a hunter.
During the colonial era in India, going on a hunting Safari or
expedition was a true 'regal sport' in the numerous princely states, as
many Maharajas, Nawabs and British officers maintained corps of
shikaris, who were native professional hunters. They would be headed by
a master hunter, who was regarded as the Mir-shikar. These people
hailed from tribes and had traditional knowledge of environment and
hunting techniques. The princes would hunt big game such as Bengal
tigers sitting on elephants. One can find many Indian paintings, many
of them during the Mughal era, portraying princes and princesses
hunting in a dense forest.
Indian social norms
are generally against hunting. India's Wildlife Protection Act of 1972
actually bans the killing of all wild animals. But, the Chief Wildlife
Warden may permit any person to hunt and kill an animal if he is
convinced that the animal poses a grave danger to human life or is
disabled or diseased beyond the recovery stage. In this case, the body
of that wild animal killed or wounded becomes government property.
India is a quaint
country which still bears a lot of resemblance to its past. Despite a
high degree of technological advancements in the urban sector, the
rural areas still manage to retain their old-world charm. The sight of
a local vegetable seller walking down the street, selling his ware, is
no rare sight even in the biggest cities of India. Hence, this is only
all too common in the Indian villages.
Vegetable sellers
either set up a small roadside stall or travel around the village with
their vegetables stacked in a wooden hand cart or in a woven cane
basket, perched atop the head of the seller. Vegetable sellers include
both men and women. Many of them work almost all day, while some
individual sellers open only for certain hours in the morning and
evening.
There are many
stories of vegetable sellers in the urban areas, who started off with
very humble beginnings and went on to become named merchants in their
field of acitivity.
Sabzi Mandis are
open wholesale markets in many parts of North India. The Mandis or the
markets teem with activity all day, filled with the aroma of different
vegetables and fruits and the sounds of vendors calling out to
potential customers or bargaining rates with them. These are truly a
sight to behold for one who is not familiar with the many sights and
sounds of India.
India is the land of spices. In fact, the East India Company had come
down to India with an idea of gaining total control over the spice
trade, among other things. India is known for its flavourful and spicy
foods. Naturally, spices and herbs form the basis of all Indian
cooking. Each region in India has its own unique cuisine, each with its
unique taste. Even within one community, sects sometimes use different
types of spices in their cooking.
The role of spices
or "Masalas" in India is not limited to merely adding flavour to the
dishes. According to tenets as mentioned in Ayurveda, these spices and
herbs actually have curative and therapeutic functions. Many of them
also serve to aid digestion, preserve the food, act as a coolant in
warm weather and even add body heat during winters.
While many
villagers, especially in North India, Gujarat and Rajasthan, prefer to
grind their own spices or Masalas, one can also find many spice sellers
in both rural and urban India. These spice sellers travel with their
spices, selling them either in the open bazaar or as an individual
seller. One can find several such sellers in the tourist areas of India
– this is often a craze of foreigners visiting the country.
The most common
spices in a spice seller's basket include whole spices, such as red
chillies, black pepper, cloves, cardamom, coriander, cumin, asafoetida,
bay leaves, fennel seeds, fenugreek, poppy seeds, pomegranate seeds,
nigella seeds, caraway seeds, mustard seeds, saffron, whole mixed
spices and so on. The powder variety includes turmeric powder, red
chilli powder, all-spice powder, coriander and cumin powder, tea and
coffee spices and so on.
Many small-scale
spice sellers also sell marinades and home-made pickles. Running this
on a co-operative basis gives job opportunities to a lot of womenfolk
and also generates added profits as well.
A mask is worn on
the face and is used for protection, concealment, performance, or
amusement. The concept of using masks for ceremonial and other purposes
is ancient. A mask may also be positioned elsewhere on the wearer's
body. For example, Australian totem masks cover the body, whilst Inuit
women use finger masks during storytelling and dancing.
Masks are popularly
used in many folk and traditional ceremonies, rituals and festivals.
This forms a part of a costume that adorns the whole body. Masks are
universally used and maintain their power and mystery both for their
wearers and their audience. In countries such as Sri Lanka, certain
masks are actually intended to ward off evil and negative forces.
Particular ritual
masks are worn for specified functions. These masks are said to have
magical properties and, according to some cultures, help mediate with
spirits and offer protection to the society which uses their powers.
India, being a
tremendously diverse land, presents the global audience with a variety
of masks and mask-making techniques. Here, masks are made out of
different materials, such as clay, paper, wood and now, even plastic.
West Bengal is
undoubtedly in the forefront as far as mask-making goes. The season for
mask-making in this state is from January to the Chaitra-Baisakh
season. The Chorda village is the center for mask-making. The artisans,
called the Sutradhars, occupy a formidable position in society and also
make clay idols of deities.
The process of
mask-making is rigorous and undergoes several stages, such as
preparation of clay models, drying of the models, pasting wet paper
with glue six to seven times, pasting cloth soaked with clay for parts
like eyes, nose and ears, trimming the model, sun-drying again and then
detaching the mask from the model, dyeing, painting and then finally
finishing it.
There are a variety
of other masks used in Indian culture for tribal dances, rituals and
festivals. Some of them are the cow mask for the cow dance, a simple
tribal mask used during temple rituals and festivals, the Hanuman mask,
the ten-headed Ravana mask (normally used for Ramleela shows during
Dusshera) and so on.
One of the
lesser-known professions is umbrella making. In coastal areas such as
Kerala, people use parasols made out of cane or wood. This is also a
familiar sight in many Asian countries as well. But ornamental parasols
are a thing exclusive to India.
Colourful, decorated
umbrellas or parasols are used for a variety of Indian functions both
in and out of the country. These delicately-detailed pieces of art add
a special look to all major functions and festivals such as wedding
processions, carnival parades and temple rituals.
Umbrella makers
delicately work with colourful patchwork, emboirdery, sequins, beads
and pearls to decorate their ware. These are used at wedding
processions, held over the groom's head; at marriage receptions and so
on.
One famous temple
ritual that pulls crowds from all over the world is the Thrissur Pooram
at Kerala. This is the biggest of the Poorams and is celebrated
annually during the Medam month, from mid-April to mid-May. The town of
Thrissur plays host to one of the largest collection of people and
elephants.
The richly decorated
elephant is now acknowledged as a symbol of Kerala. On the pooram day,
fifty or more elephants pass through the center of Thrissur town, the
Vadakkunnathan temple. The main features of the pooram festival are
these decorated elephants with their nettipattam (decorative
headdress), decorative bells and ornaments and so on. The
panchavadyam or rhythmic beating of the drum and the fireworks display
add to the general glamour of the festival.
The colourful
parasol display is one of the highlights of this festival. Two rival
groups display a maximum of fifteen elephants and hold the most
artistic and colourful cloth parasols, kept raised on the elephants
during the display. They keep changing the parasols, till they finish
their stock. One of the teams is then deemed to be the winner of the
elephant and parasol show. The makers of these wonderfully crafted
parasols start working weeks in advance, so that their team can win the
coveted prize.
A merchant is
someone who owns a businessman and trades in commodities that he did
not produce himself. This, he does, so as to earn a profit out of the
business. A merchant is normally termed as a "Vyavasaayi", taken from
the word, "Vyavasaay", which means, "business".
Merchants are of any of the two types mentioned below:
Sometimes, though, a
wholesaler can also be involved in a retail business. Of course, this
case happens quite rarely, as businessmen usually prefer to specialize
in their particular field of activity. Pre-modern societies sometimes
stipulated a merchant class for each trader. This status could range
from high grades like Navab to lower rungs.
In many countries,
there is an unwritten rule that whenever a merchant sells a good, he or
she has to give an implied warranty of merchantability, guaranteeing
that the product is fit to be sold. A merchant who does not conform to
this rule invariably fails to win over the trust of his or her
customers and experiences a subsequent failure of the business.
Merchants grew and
flourished in India, since the vedic times. Several groups and guilds
of Indian merchants used to tour the entire sub-continent even in the
early centuries. The guilds, known as srenis or nigamas controlled the
entire trade and commerce of various goods and services. The royalty
extended great support to these businessmen, since they were moneyed
and paid very high taxes to them at the time. In fact, the income from
such taxes formed a good chunk of the financial assets in the royal
treasury.
India abounded with
cloth, silk, oil, diamond, gold and other merchants. Interestingly, the
Rig Veda talks about the ancient Indian merchants having been great
seafarers, travelling the seas, in order to make good gain. Named
historian, R. C. Majumdar states: "The representation of ship on a seal
indicates maritime activity, and there is enough evidence to show that
the peoples of the Sindhu valley carried on trade not only with other
parts of India but also with Sumer and the centers of culture in
Western Asia, and with Egypt and Crete."
Kautilya's
Arthashastra too, gives us a clear idea about the business communities
in existence then. The guilds additionally arranged for entertainment,
such as hosting athletic games, wrestling matches and so on. Each team
of players would exhibit their guild's emblem and banner. Even local
interests and those of the senior citizens were taken care of by the
guilds.
The guilds further
got together artisans and craftsmen from different field and appointed
them to educated youngsters in skills such as weaving, spinning,
ship-building, oil-crushing and so on. They even acted as courts of
law, settling disputes among the members. Representatives of guilds
were considered to be extremely knowledgeable and were given due
respect even in the royal courts. Besides, they were provided with
quarters to stay in, concessions and various other benefits as
well.
The Indian business community at present is no less dynamic than the days of yore. Thanks to globalization, one can find Indian stores and products in any corner of the world. Indian art and craft is in demand today, like never before. Even the remotest place in the world is bound to have some restaurant serving up delicious Indian cuisine!
This article was written by:
Priya Viswanathan, a teacher/performer of Bharata Natyam, Classical Music and Classical Instrumental Veena. A recipient of several awards for both music and dance, Priya is also a freelance writer online. She currently writes for About.com, a subsidiary of IAC - the parent company of Ask.com. (http://mobiledevices.about.com)